The Rastafarian Belief System Jamaica

Rastafari was developed by poor Jamaicans who were of African descent and many early members believed in black supremacy.    Rastafarians believe in God who they call Jah.  Jah is seen as being part of the Holy Trinity, he is the Holy Sprit.  They believe that he was black and that the Emperor of Ethiopia Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia Haile Selassie I who ruled from 1930 to 1974 is the root of Jesus and that he will lead the righteous into the perfect world of Zion. Rastas believe that his death in 1975 was a hoax as God cannot die (Owens).  Rastas believe that Zion is the land that God promised them and that Babylon is the land of the west, full of corruption and that the predominantly white people of Babylon are here on earth to rebel against Jah.

There are two religious ceremonies, Reasoning where they gather together smoke cannabis and talk about social, ethical and religious issues and Groundation or Binghi which is a holy day where there is dancing, singing and eating as well as cannabis and this can last for days (Bradley, 2009).

Jesus was described as the Lion of Judah and the Lion is also the symbol Haile Selassie. Smoking cannabis is a spiritual act and is often done whilst studying the bible where as Catholics see the holy sacrament as bread Rastas see cannabis as a sacrament in that it purifies the mind, body and soul and brings them closer to Jah.

The colors Red, Green and Gold are also a symbol of the culture.  The colors are worn as clothes and also badges posters and so on.  The colors represent the flags of Jamaica and Ethiopia.   The gold is the wealth of Africa, green is both countries countryside and the red is for the blood of the Jamaican martyrs.
Dreadlocks are another symbol associated with Rastas.  Some say the first dreads were copied from Kenya others clam it is because of the scriptures   All the days of the vow of his separation there shall no razor come upon his head until the days be fulfilled, in the which he separateth himself unto the Lord, he shall be holy, and shall let the locks of the hair of his head grow.

Music is also important to the culture and reggae is popular around the world.  Much of the lyrics in the songs represent the culture and the struggles of Black Africans for example Bob Marleys Exodus song.
A subgroup of Rastafarians who first appeared in 1949 was the Youth Black Faith.  They were young and preached the doctrine of Rastafari they wanted to change the burning of oils and candles and revolted against Revival tradition wanting reforms and those who wanted to practice revival tradition were excluded and they had little or no desire to mix with other Jamaicans and thought that women had evil ways, (Eschert 1988).
Rastafarianism is a religion and culture of many symbols and rituals and as a religion continues to grow and practice throughout the globe however unlike Christianity and Islam which are also full of symbolism it is a not a missionary religion it is an ethnic based religion and is mindful of its origins.   Its symbols are recognized around the world.

Describe the political and economic relationship between England and the American colonies prior to 1763.

From the very beginning, Parliament had ruled over England while democracy and self-rule was practiced in the American colonies. Certain political events took place including self-administration in the American colonies, chain of battles between Spain and France and political effort among the parliament and the crown which resulted in political differences amongst the England and the American colonies and the chief origin for the distraction of England from the interior associations of the American colonies. Numerous Navigation Acts were imposed by the parliament prior to 1763 to establish economic subservience through profitable limitations. Trading from the French and the Dutch was prohibited and were compelled to restrict it between the American colonies and the England. These Navigation Acts resulted in more aggravation between England and America. The American revolt with the England in 1763 resulted in four wars.

 Discuss how and why the lifestyles and experiences of American colonists began to differ from those of their kinfolk in England. When do you believe they began to see themselves as being less British and more Anglo-American

The colonists when migrated from England to America combined greatly with the Americans. They detained positions of authority and assisted in formulating laws in favor of the country. Anglo-Americans is regarded more as simple American owing to several cultural bonds between the two states. American belonging to English tradition and custom are regarded as Americans. It is due to the reason that Non-English populace did not appear in full strength immediately. Cultural uniqueness like becoming Protestant, having blessings and prayers, playing basketball and uttering the language of their intimates is distinguished without apprehending and are included in American Culture. They are spotted as imperceptible racial group, due to the course of time their intimates may have spent in United States.
Discuss the beginnings of the political and economic philosophy of the colonists Declaration of Independence.

The colonists precisely demanded that since they werent given any representation in the Parliament so lawfully they shouldnt even pay the tax to the Parliament. As their appeals were repetitively overlooked, and they were compelled to pay taxes for no reason, so they tried some devastating acts to bring their petition in lime light, example the Tea Party of Boston in 1774. As a reaction to this act of disobedience by the Massachusetts Colony, punishment was conducted by the Emperor and the Parliament. This act was called by the colonists as Intolerable Acts.  The Acts aroused the colonies to call upon the congress for a response against the emperor and the Parliament.

First meeting of Continental Congress was called in September 1774 in Philadelphia where the Intolerable Acts were claimed illegal by the congress and were appealed to get equal rights as the English. A committee was assigned by the Congress to draft the Declaration of Independence that included John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Livingston and Roger Sherman.

In what ways and for what reasons did American colonists become more than transplanted Europeans
Settlers from England came to America with the intention to have a say and decision making power in the government which required them to have their own form of government. During the mid seventeenth century, England was known to be a Christian-dominated nation while colonies were Puritans. The colonies had more religious freedom than the Christian churches in England. England had much more clear and distinct social classes unlike the colonies which had simple yet efficient, streamlined class structure hence providing opportunities to individuals to elevate on social ladder. New settlers living on coast made their earning through fishing and farming while England couldnt do this as they didnt have enough land to give it to all their individual males and indentured servants. However colonies developed their capitalist system by growing their mercantile with England. Notion of liberty was expanded by the colonies far beyond the imagination of England. Hence, through the three distinguished features capitalism, self-government and a fluid class structure American colonists became more than the transplanted Europeans.

America became a culturally distinct place from England during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Using information about decorative arts, architecture, clothing, food, language, ethnicity, and race, describe the evolution of this cultural distinctiveness.

In the years followed up to 1776, a series of events led to a far-reaching alteration in diet of the colonists. Taxes and excise imposed by England increased inflation and ultimately urging colonists to hold a sense of bitterness towards British Kingdom. Introduction of taxes and excise sooner or later sowed the way to the American Revolution. As they cant depend on British trade, so agricultural performances of colonists initiated on becoming self-sufficient. They sowed familiar crops and preferred self bred animals for their leather, meat and wool. Wheat is the chief cereal grain.  Architecture examples include United States Capitol building in Washington, constructed by American Architect, William Thornton. Furthermore, few college campuses like Princeton University, Yale and the University of Delaware having Georgian outlook.  Customary thoughts and principles from the European continent such as entrepreneurship, democracy, different forms of monotheism and communal independence are also present.

How did tensions between democratic and aristocratic elements evolve into a more-or-less unified American culture that was increasingly cohesive, yet more distinct from England Tensions between the democratic and aristocratic elements have evolved into a United American culture. In the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries, Art and literature of America took its entire prompt from Europe. Luckily the architecture in the United States is vast and has been evolved by numerous external factors. In the dearth of a solitary extensive architectural manipulation from local people like in Mexico and Peru, designers have integrated pressures from the world. At present the, the prevailing thesis of American Architecture is modernity. Conventional American gastronomic arts are analogous to those in other Western Countries. European immigration has led to countless customary Christian holidays, like Lent, St. Patrick day and Easter.  Christmas is to be extensively celebrated even though they are observed in a worldly way by several people nowadays.

European heads of state generally seem to favor moderate Democratic administrations in the U.S. because they may be more inclined toward multilateralism in world politics. American neo-conservatism is viewed with disdain because it is avowedly more inclined toward American unilateralism. But is American unilateralism actually a stimulus toward a European counterbalance How should the U.S. conduct itself in regard to a stronger and more assertive pan-European foreign policy, assuming that the Europeans can muster the necessary unity

American Unilateralism has severe outcome on Europe. It greatly fears Poland and post-communist states of East-central Europe, beginning from Estonia to Hungary, who hardly started enjoying their lives after independence form the violent Russian imperialism. They looked upon NATO as the crucial obstruction to any turmoil initiating from East. European Union is wholeheartedly responsible for their welfare and benefits. For being their influential entity, NATO is influential and powerful. As a consequence of French-German behavior, NATO began to weaken hence these states look for sustaining defense measures. It is due to this agenda that one should infer the signing by the Prime Minister of East-central European and President Havel of the epistle sustaining the US, formulated by Western NATO Allies Italy, Spain and Britain. The post-communists states allegedly attempted to fortify the mutual bonds with the US.

Parag Khanna, in an August 16, 2004 article in Foreign Policy magazine entitled The Metro-sexual Superpower, makes the argument that European urbane sophistication, diplomacy, and powers of persuasion (i.e., soft power) are to be very much preferred in todays world, as opposed to the American predisposition to deploy military force. What is your reaction to this notion Do you agree or disagree with Khanna, and why
Parag Khanna has considered European Union as First Metro sexual Superpower as the praise to their performance of refined superiority, international relations and authority of arguments. I totally agree to the opinion offered by Mr.Khanna. Today Europe has turn out to be much more eye catching than the America on the walkway of ambassadorial power. This is the reasonable decrease of the thesis of Robert Kagan that American belongs to Mars while the Europeans belong to Venus. It would be more appropriate if we say that the Europeans belong to Pluto, whose status has recently changed to the Dwarf Planet. Considerably a dwarf superpower doesnt has strategies and rules, it rather has attitude, as it is maximum they can manage to have.

Discuss Tony Blairs distinction between the concepts of super-state and superpower. Is this realistic What is the implication of the notion that a true superpower must be able to project power globally
Tony Blairs appealing phrase that he wants Europe to be superpower but not a super-state in its economic and political strength emphasized on the point that what should Europe do to become superpower. This included forces to complete the single market, drive through necessary economic reform, phase out the wasteful and inefficient aspects of the CAP, restore full employment, get a more coherent foreign policy, develop the military capability, fight organized crime, immigration racketeering and the drug trade, and protect an environment that knows no border.  This catchy little slogan was designed to deceive, not to illuminate since it is quite evident that European Union cannot be even partly be a superpower unless it is also partly a super-state.

What will be the likely effect upon NATO if the EU succeeds in creating its own European Defense Agency
Recently, NATO and EU have both emphasized the necessity of complete co-operation between both the institutions in the best interests of the world de-conflict missions and resource allocations. There are few instances in which a real strategic partnership can be established between EU and NATO. One of them is military capabilities which have lead to think to acquire a new dimension with the establishment of the European Defense Agency. If EU succeeds in creating its own European Defense Agency, then there is a danger of duplication and inadequate interoperability. There are few EU members of NATO who are in favor of EU in having its own European Defense Agency.

Look ahead 40 years. The EU has lasted for two generations. Europe has a unified economic, banking, and currency system Now, the French electorate turns hard to the right. It wishes to close its borders to immigrant workers and throw up restrictive trade barriers against non-French goods and services. It wants France to return to the franc, and to secede from the EU. If this occurs, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg will follow, precipitating a financial and economic crisis. What outcomes might you predict from this scenario How would you advise the EU and its member governments

Restrictive trade would please the small firms as they would get opportunity to carve out the market. Restrictions on trade would limit the outflow of local currency outside the country and would increase the money supply in the country. Hence this will result in bringing the rate of inflation down thereby encouraging investments by local bodies. On the other hand, this will create financial crisis for countries which generate good revenue through their exports to Franc. However, restriction on the immigrant workers to enter France would result in a rise in labor cost which may cause the cost of production to increase greatly. Moreover, cheap labor from Asian and Middle Eastern countries cannot be called. EU must take considerable actions against restrictive trade barriers against non-French goods and services which could serve in best interest of France and rest of the world.

What are the two principal current of change discussed in our assigned readings that are affecting European demographics today Discuss the challenges and implications as you see them.
European Demographics today are affected by following two trends Increased life expectancy and declining fertility. On the demographic perspective, Europe merged some extremes. Few among the 27 European Union member countries and other areas of Europe (Balkans, EEB and European CIS) faced the lowest productiveness universally. At the same instance the majority of the 27 European Union countries and other portions of Western Europe squeeze into a set of states with the maximum life expectancy globally.

Title of the Review   
This paper presents an analytical evaluation of Gary Nashs book Race and Revolution. The book was printed in 1990 at Madison House, Madison. The paper explicitly discusses the work of Gary Nash-a brilliant historian and brings into attention the various dimensions of the book.  A source has also been cited at the end of the paper.

Introduction of the Author
Gary b. Nash is an exceptional historian. He has done remarkable work in the field of history. This great historian completed his B. A. degree from Princeton University in 1955 and PhD in 1964. He was also employed as the Dean and President of various Undergraduate Institutions. Since 1994, he served as administrator of National centre for history. At present, he is the History Professor at the University of

California. 
He has written and edited numerous books. Apart from this he wrote abundant articles for magazines and journals. He won the best article prize in 1976 for the article Poverty and Poor Relief in the Pre-Revolutionary Philadelphia . Furthermore, he has done chapter contributions in about 35 books and has written reviews of eighty books.    

Summary of the Contents
Basically the authors purpose behind writing this book was to bring in light the problems faced by the slaves. It has also highlighted bravery and courage showed by the slaves to fight for their rights and the way they fearlessly fought with the white to get back their lost name in the society. Towards the end of the book the author happily announces the victory of the slaves that they got after all their sacrifices. The issues highlighted in this book agreed with the materials discussed by other authors in their books. As the slavery issue is an immeasurable and infinite issue and has been mentioned by many historians. Gary Nashs book contained the same opinion as the other writers in their books. Furthermore, the book contained foot note and end note which gives more information about the text.

Gary Nash in his book, Race and Revolution, addressed the ignorance of the majestic class for the awfulness of slavery. The slaves themselves were unaware of the wretchedness they were subjected by the majestic class. The book is entirely based on the cruelty on slaves done during the period of American Revolution.  The American believed that they have constitutional right to slave African but according to Nash, Northern Leaders were to be blamed fore this act. Further in the text it had been explained that how the slaves reacted to the aggressive whites who created race differences between the people and denied granting them their roles in the society. Within the text of the book extracts and passages were taken from the Merrill Jensen
Lectures given in 1988 at the University of Wisconsin.

Further in Race and Revolution the author highlighted problems that have harassed the American society socially as well as politically.  Slavery has always been an unconventional issue for arguments. Americans preferred to pay attention on the Revolutionary period when dealing with slavery and then the Civil War and the modernization period while Nash on the first hand chose the century leading and following Revolutionary period to discuss slavery. Nash argued that the American Revolution represents the largest slave uprising in our history. Race and Revolution is the compelling story of that failed quest for the promise of freedom.

Nash in his second essay argued about his supposed explanation for the collapse of the abolitionists movement when it was expected to get success. The main focus of the author was that who should be held responsible for the unexpected turn-down in the anti-slavery thoughts. He presumed that it may be the South, who was in desperate requirement of the forced labor for their cultivation of crops. The monetary challenge was that how to reimburse the owners of the slaves who were compelled to give out their chattels.  What would be the impact on the economy of the northern colonies after the liberation Since the slaves were the legal property of the owner, then how the government can take their property without compensating them.
While reading the book it is observed that Nash highlighted that North, though given many chance, did not try to make arrangements to liberate the slaves.   We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, among these are life, liberty and happiness(Nash, 1990).

In the concluding essay of Race and revolution, Nash highlighted Africans part in the abolitionist movement. He mentioned eminent African free man and their contributions they made to build churches for black and other places and at the same time supporting the program of eradication, obliteration and liberation to the administration nationally. Half part of the book is occupied by  historical articles, essays, and other credential that bring all the three essays of the book together in lime light.

Body of the Review
Due to the course of American Revolution, it was predicted that an obvious inappropriateness occurred within the slaved labor system, be it between the slave traders or the slave owners and the values that lie behind the efforts of England for the establishment of fresh and forthcoming state. History repeatedly doesnt take into account the forthcoming anti-slavery urge within the period of American Revolution. Historians have always preferred foundation of political system on republic ideology over subject related to slavery.
Famous historian, Max Ferrand exempted the political and national leaders who failed to eradicate slavery. Various Historians clarified that the collapse of the South to eradicate slavery was based on the principle that the political amalgamation was unstable and trembling subsequent to war. Further, historians came out with the uncertainty that if the south would have been compelled to eradicate slavery then Carolina and Georgia might have turn down to link with the union at that time. Unsuccessful to achieve unity might have ended up in a racial war or dreadful repression of slaves which would be unfavorable for the slaves.

The first federal census reported that nearly 293,000 slaves resided in Virginia which accounted for a 250 increase since 1755 and further thousands of slaves retreated to Britain during the Revolution and to the North after the war including the sale of slaves southward in 1780s. (Nash 1990). The question arouses that why the abolition of slavery was confined for such a long time within the constitutional principle of 1787 It is singled out by politicians that the political union of the northern and southern states was the stumbling block to the abolition of slavery. (Nash 1990). Nash mentioned in his book that Hamilton put in writing in Federalist Article No 85 A nation without a national government is an awful spectacle. (Nash 1990). Slavery holds egalitarianism of mankind and accustoms us to dictatorship and autocracy as given our constitutional privileges.

In due course, the Northern states initiated to forbid the significance of slavery as majority of southern states did. They started to liberate slaves in repression during 1840s. A great deal of double standards relating slavery and liberation of slaves still subsisted counting Benjamin Rush, a benevolent and charitable physician, who procured a slave, William Grubber during 1783 whilst still having him in his custody as a servant. He became a part of Pennsylvania Abolition Society in 1784 and turndown to liberate Grubber from his custody. It is in view that Rush was known to the duplicity of procuring his slave or he has controlling motive behind the amalgamation with the Abolition Society.

Shortly after three years in 1787, as a consequence of reading Thomas Clarks Essay on Slavery and Commerce on the Human Species, Rush had a distressing dream. He found himself with Africans enthusiastically practicing religious obligations by attractive sandy seashore. The African went into terror at the sight of the white man, Rush, and start narrating stories regarding their occurrences with slavery and how the cruel white stole their homes from them. The dream carved a sense of guilt in Rush and consequently started supporting the elimination of slavery. He further showed enthusiasm towards the Pennsylvania Abolition Society by assisting them to shape their constitution as well as served as its secretary for several years.  Regardless of his guiltiness and down to business attitude towards the Abolition Society, he apprehended his slave Grubber for another seven years.

Prior to 1830 abolition, a tax was proposed on all slave owners for remunerated liberation of slaves. Nash excellently narrates that while representing Pennsylvania at the constitutional conference, Governor Morris proposed such a compensation to pay for all the Negroes in the United States rather than to legitimate slavery. (Nash 1990). The predictable tax was approximately 90 million at the rate of 150 per slave.

Peter Onuf mentioned that the government proposed an alternate source of funding from the western lands provided an inexhaustible funding to promote a stronger government. (Nash 1990).  Later a rumor spread that as long as the populace of Tennessee and Ohio remain persistently growing there would be a continuous liberation of slaves too. An agreement between the South and the North was a key to support the liberation of slaves through Ground Western Funding. At this instant, the congress party banned transporting slaves in the Northwest Territory and luckily South supported them.

The author had affectively explained that during the second session of the Congress party in 1790, North was granted the opportunity to take steps on the slavery problem. The Mid-Atlantic Quakers and the Pennsylvania Abolition Society petitioned Congress on February 11th and 12th to implore its power as implied in the preamble of the constitution to extend the blessing of liberty without regards to color to all description of people. (Nash 1990).

Further the Petition of Society of Friends highlighted the brutal and merciless temperament of slavery. They appealed for the solution against the attitude of people towards slaves. The Pennsylvania Abolition Society fervently utilized its authority to inquire Congress to wipe out slavery from the core. Spokesperson of South Carolina predicted that if this appeal is accepted then this might break the state apart. Representative James Jackson of Georgia stated that if the petition was taken seriously it would absolutely blow the trumpet of civil war. (Nash 1990).

After six years in 1796 St. John Tucker, eminent lawyer and office possessor of Virginia got grip of the first Constitutional Congress. Trucker formulated a plan and presented it to the parliament. Two foremost issues were the 1790 centralized census outcome and the political detonation in Caribbean that took place after the 1970 poll. Noticeable enhancements in the sale of slaves were observed during 1780s. 

According to the 1970 census, the population of slaved people was up to 50 . Tucker premeditated to craft a petition saying that the enslaved society was irreconcilable with the government. A revolt had busted on the French Caribbean Island due to increasing violence.  Tucker believed that Slavery Violates laws of Nature, Laws of Civil Society, it wounds the best forms of Government in a democracy where all Men are equal Slavery is contrary to the spirit of the constitution. (Nash 1990). Tucker hired few new employs to justify the unlawful activity of the earlier men. He clarified that now we are in a diverse and much better society so we must eradicate the dishonor of slavery to defend the principles of government on the basis of which our state was established. He repeatedly told people that the practice of slavery is a dishonor and humiliating and to stand such an act is national humiliation.

Black residents of Philadelphia in 1800 appealed the Congress to eliminate slavery, a revoke of Fugitive Slave Act 1793. There was an elimination clause in the Confederation Article which reads that there is inter colonial stipulation for the homecoming of any slave after the runaway. Their dynamic forces inclined on the unchallengeable privileges for all citizens as given by the forewords of the Constitution. A free slave, Gabriel Prosser of Virginia formulated a plan to put an end to slavery in the states of South. He was a blacksmith and was offered more liberation then any other slave of that time. Gabriel and his fellow men initiated a plan secretly to conquer the slave owners targeted at the Federalists and merchants who were of the most prominent members in society at the time.(Nash 1990) An assault was planned for August 30 white were alarmed beforehand, so it was a flop too.

Vesey of Denmark obtained his liberation from the French Caribbean and devised a slave revolt in 1822. He was stimulated by the rage of the closing of a Church of African and formulated his revolution on July 14, 1822, the Bastille Day. He along with other black slaves devised to capture over the city of Charleston in South Carolina then sailed safely to Haiti to flee for their life time liberation. Unfortunately they failed to accomplish their plan successfully and resulted in the arrest of fellowmen proceeding to the origination of the attack. Supplementary, they were tried, condemned and later put to death for the act of rebellion.

On the other hand, slave rebellion of Nat Turner in 1851 was a success. They were able to capture Southampton Country of Virginia and successfully took hold of the place. More than 50 white were slaughtered in the well devised revolt. This was on of the greatest victory by a slave planned revolt and also claimed the lives of many cruel. As a consequence, a bill was passed snatching the right of education from the slaves limiting the rights of gathering and imposing the white preachers at religious services of black. Many black sacrificed their lives for the sake of revolt struggling for their motives. This revolt lasted for few days prior to the survival of Turner. He was gone into hiding for several months after the revolt was known to the people. This revolt put down milestone in the reminiscences of white hero and slave owners.
On December 18, 1865 slavery was put to an end after the selection of Abraham Lincoln as the President in November, 1860. The civil War soon instigated in 1861 after the Lincolns investiture. Four further Southern states joined the confederacy and four border slave states remained in the Union. (Nash 1990).

Congress void the escapee slaved laws in 1862 which banned acts of slavery in the territories of United States of America and in addition hiring Lincoln to hire slaves in the Army of United states of America. Lincoln subjected his target to issue an Emancipation Proclamation  Calling on the Union army to liberate all slaves in United States still in rebellion as an act of justice, warranted by the constitution, upon military necessity. (Nash 1990).

Over three million slaves were set free excluding the slaves of Border States which were also included in the Union and three confederate districts that were also under the Union.  Introduction of thirteenth amendment was done to the Congress. By the two-third vote, the republican senate approved the amendment on April 1865. It is amazingly historical that it was only three month prior to the surrender of Robert E. Lee in Appomattox.

Alabama turn out to be the twenty seventh state to approve the thirteenth amendment on December 2, 1865, thus giving it the necessary three-fourth majority of states support to transform it as the law of the state. (Nash 1990). It was a forced approval because without this approval Alabama wouldnt be re-admitted to the Union.

In the course of 246 years ever since the entrance of African captives in Virginia and Jamestown, trials and troubles of enslaved people, death-defying disadvantages, now come to an end by the approval of thirteenth amendment and finally the slaves were liberated by their effortless struggle for the eradication of enslaver. Still the confusion arouses that who actually liberated the slaves The freedom fighters themselves who laid their lives to get their freedom or because of the supremacy of Lincoln who pressurize Congress to approve the
13th Amendment
Nash effectively conveyed his viewpoint to its readers. Nash at several points restated in his book that those who were in favor of the freedom of the slaves were actually the slave owners. On the other hand, showing double standards refused to liberate their personal slaves and considered them as their personal property though hypocritically supporting their liberation in public as the author gave the example of a philanthropic doctor, Benjamin Rush and Allison. Furthermore, Allison passed to his predecessor the privileges and rights of his slave on his death bed. 

Conclusively, Race and Revolution is a forceful study of the innovatory generations hard work to fight for the opposition of slavery and their sacrifices and conciliation for the sake of freedom. Their sacrifices was not wasted rather it gives them the fortification of reinforced government after 1788. This book basically deals with the African communitys response to their slavery and its energetic and forceful appeal for the justice and finally the success of the community to establish African American society in the antagonistic and unsympathetic surrounding
   
The two prominent concerns that displeased the social as well as the political community was that after the liberation of the slaves, how they would efficiently continue to live without their owners and how would the owners of the slaves be compensated after the liberation of their slaves Outstanding sway was the predictable enclosure of the newly created Union by South Carolina and Georgia when slaves were liberated. To sustain these assumption historical documents were given by the author.
The slavery obliteration of is maintained individually by Nash in four essays in the book supporting the revolutionary Generation. Pennsylvania was the chief state for the eradication of slavery in 1780. Few leaders like Richard Allen, Prince Hall, James Forten and Jupiter Hammon recognize themselves as leaders of white oriented community and they reach this position by passing through churches for black and social clubs.

The book, as expected, gives its readers a detailed and thorough understanding of history. The contributions made by the African American slaves to society have been well endorsed by evidences. This book gives thorough understanding of era when slavery was commonly practiced. It can be of great help to history and international relation students who could make the best use of the book content and the references used by the author. This book has succeeded in changing the perspective of readers regarding slavery and its implication during the American Revolution. It carries great significance as it was an important part of our nations past and hence needs to be taught in todays world. 
   
The author was pretty successful in giving his viewpoint to its readers. He explicitly presented his thoughts illustrated with numerous examples which clarified his point to a larger extent. The history readers once taken up the book wouldnt put it down before they have finished reading it. The author has made exemplary efforts to gain attention of the readers till the end of the book.

Ca da Mostos account in An Early Portuguese Encounter with West Africans tells historians that Europeans perceived West Africans as uncivilized and inferior.  This perception is exhibited through Ca da Mostos description of the West Africans lack of wealth, different beliefs, lack of knowledge and violent disposition.
   
Ca da Mosto seemed to believe that wealth indicates how civilized someone is and how honest they are.  During his initial voyage to West Africa, Ca da Mosto speaks of how highly the king is regarded, how trustworthy he is and how fair he is.  It becomes clear, however, that his perception of the king is related more particularly to his wealth which is the only thing that he constantly references.  He mentions that the king, paid royally for what was brought to him.  He spoke of how the king promised to give him one hundred slaves in exchange for the goods he received and how the king gave him a handsome young negress. 
   
During his trip to the kings home, Ca da Mosto went to the local market.  There, he observed that these people are exceedingly poor.  He based this on their clothing, the products they purchased and the fact that they only bartered for items because no one had any money.  He was also unable to find any gold.  After realizing the poverty, it becomes obvious that Ca da Mostos view of the country had completely changed from somewhat positive to negative.  He decided to go farther up the river, in the hope of finding better disposed peoples.
   
Ca da Mosto constantly makes references indicating that the West Africans had strangely different religious beliefs.  Their actual religious denomination is never stated but Ca da Mostos account makes it clear that they are non-Christian.  He considers their beliefs to be based on a lack of knowledge and somewhat ignorant as compared to Christianity.  When he saw them they were amazed at seeing a Christian.  When Ca da Mosto fired his mortar as a demonstration to the West Africans, they were frightened and believed that it was of the devil.  They believed that his country pipe was made by God with his own hands. Ca da Mosto notes that when he demonstrated how to use a candle for light, the West Africans exclaimed we Christians had knowledge of everything. It appears that West Africans attribute any and everything that they do not understand to God, the devil or some other supernatural power.
   
After defeating the West Africans they encountered while sailing, Ca da Mosto notes that a great number of negroes were wounded.  By the grace of God, however, not one of the Christians was hit.  God protected them as Christians but not the uncivilized West Africans.  After the battle, Ca da Mosto asked the West Africans why they attacked.  One of the reasons was that they firmly believed that we Christians ate human flesh.  This, again points out Ca da Mostos belief that the West Africans are illogical.
   
Ca da Mosto frequently pointed out his observation that West Africans lacked the knowledge of Europeans.  They were amazed at his stylish clothing and were surprised to see that his skin was actually white.  They believed that Ca da Mostos country pipe was a living animal with different voices and they were amazed by his ship and its construction.  They thought the portholes in the ship were eyes so that the ship could see its way and they believed Ca da Mosto and his crew to be wizards because of the way that they were able to navigate the sea.  He attributes this belief to the fact that the West Africans were ignorant of compasses and other navigational tools.  They were amazed at the idea of a candle burning in a candlestick because they were unaware of means of light other than fire.  According to Ca da Mosto, the West Africans only had two primitive musical instruments. 
   
Ca da Mosto seemed to imply that West Africans had an unnecessarily violent disposition.  He went further upstream hoping that in the country farther upstream we might find more civilized people than those we had seen in the canoes.  On their way, they encountered canoes of about one hundred and fifty men with bows and arrows.  According to Ca da Mosto, they began to attack and his men retaliated.  After hearing the sound of bombards, the West Africans stopped in amazement and then proceeded to attack again.  Even as Ca da Mosto tried to explain that they came in peace, the West Africans were not convinced. As astonished as they were with Ca da Mostos crew and weaponry, they continued to attack.  From Ca da Mostos account, the West Africans attacked them even though they were just peaceful people looking for a friendly relationship with them.
   
Ca da Mosto makes glaring distinctions between European culture and that of West Africa.  In noting differences, he does so in a way that seems to unfairly characterizes the West Africans as uncivilized people who are leap years behind Europeans when it comes to wealth, thought, beliefs and self-control.  In the end, the sailors opted to return home to avoid further danger.  I suspect the danger was just differences.

Terror in French revolution

In every political set up, the rulers try with all means possible to maintain their rule over their subjects. Terror is a weapon of the mind which uses the power of fear to psychologically control the ruled. This is carried out as a cautionary measure when the leadership feels it is at a risk of losing its leadership to other forces. Organized terror orchestrated by the government of the day like the one that was carried out at the times of French Revolution is aimed at making the subjects obedient. By doing so, the administration extinguishes any intentions of revolting against the leadership regardless of the implications imposed to them by the leadership. As it was said by Machiavelli, terror is the only instrument of a tyrannical ruler and a supreme instrument in the lead of simpler souls, or those who are nervous and is always intended to enslave the victims.   

The organizers of French Revolution not only did they justify the need of using terror as a weapon in their administration but went ahead to fully employ this weapon to its full-length in asserting political supremacy over the French citizens. This is as evidenced by the occurrences during this period from the formation of revolutionary army to its operations.

The birth of revolutionary army 
During a convection which was held on the fifth day of September 1793, French leadership was facing a dilemma on how to provide basic need of food that was biting hard on its hungry citizens. It was observed that, despite the house passing noble and wise laws that promised a good time for the citizens, there was a constant lack of power to enforce these laws. The fear of such noble laws becoming obsolete almost at birth created the need to a formidable power. The intention to criminalize the acts that denied the public supply of basic properties was seen as a moral just.

The state had earlier on made a promise though its laws to promote a happy nation that has no lack of what the citizens needed. Those who were denying the citizens the access of these basic supplies were seen as public enemies and traitors of national good. It was in this view that a thought of trimming the courage of these enemies of state progress was conceived. The participants of this convection spoke of changing metal into weapons capable of felling these enemies of the state. The most agonizing fact on the minds of the conveners of this convection was that, these enemies were in constant talk about liberty yet they were heinous in their acts for a personal gain. They henceforth set to create a force that would not yield to conspiracy and corruption from these traitors but instead would transform into a killer machine by commuting death sentence upon those who were at that time leading the nation to starvation.
   
Prior to this meeting, general community of France had met and resolved on three pressing issues which they needed them addressed by their leadership. Firstly was the urgency need of food. Secondly was the ways by which to get that food and finally was the need to strengthen the law. To meet this end, the conveners felt the need to form a revolutionary army which would have no guilt through plotting and instilling fear by infiltrating itself through the all arms of government. The membership of the revolution was enticed trough allowances for attendance and the standards followed a threatening order of ensuring peace to men of good will while on the other hand proclaiming war on those who would starve people. It also promised to protect the weak and wage war on tyrants to ensure a just society devoid of oppression. The country was not at war with her neighbors yet there was a decree to manufacture weapons (guns) for each citizen. These are the same weapons that were used to kill many lives on the later stages of revolution.
   
In his speech on 5th of February 1794, Robespierre supported the actions of revolution agents by justifying the use of terror to enlarge and control the subjects of his leadership. He emphasized on the need to employ virtue and terror to keep his republic away from any or otherwise subversive influence from the enemies within and beyond its borders. The execution of the law of suspects saw the transformation of justice system into an extended arm of revolution movement. The holding up of all individuals suspected of being critics of liberty brought about a lot of fear among the citizens. This was targeting all individuals who were by nature of their associations were not members of this movement.  It was a fancy act for the revolutionaries to terrorize any population under their capture. This is what happened after their capture of Prouse. Despite their surrender to the revolutionary army, they were all made to perish. About three hundred citizens were had their throats slit while the rest war chased and killed by the power of the sword wiping away a whole city out of the surface of the earth.
   
The revolutionaries continued to extend their terror among their subjects by making it a crime to involve themselves in a number of issues. For example, it was a crime for any captured town or a city to raise a monument of any persona executed by arms of revolution.  If a person was found having a portrait of his or her family members like descendants it was termed as a crime. There was a search for any reason to pass a punishment. For example, if one complained about unfortunate times, he deserved punishment as that was taken as a role of a government. There was even an instance where a mother was punished for crying over the fateful death of her son. Under the revolutionary rule, one was supposed to portray joy even at death failure to which one would be exposed to danger of prosecution. People were even cautious of being afraid as the mere act of portraying fear made them guilty of an abominable crime. During this period, a number of people were captured for any imaginary crime, whipped and at times sentenced to hard labor in the mines. Public executions were used as an act of inducing fear and forcing people to comply with the rules of the revolution some were even punished by having their bodies cut into a half.
   
Other actions led to suspicion and hence warranted ones conviction of committing a crime. Popularity of a person made him a rival of the prince. One was supposed to indulge in activities that would not make him or her noticeable. Wealth was despised as it was seen as it would lead to generosity and hence corrupting other people. Poverty was also seen as a cause to worry as it could lead to one becoming enterprising which was not allowed under the rule of revolution. Any physical sign of soberness would lead to suspicion even the army officers who made for themselves a name during the war were seen as a threat and were supposed to be gotten rid of.
   
In his support for virtue of morality and terror, Robespierre called for a complete change over of the way the state was run. In his view, there was a need in the land under French revolution to substitute ethics for selfishness, truthfulness for official codes of honor. He inspired his followers to embrace principles for ways of life and a sense of responsibility for a single sense of greediness. He also called for a change to a leadership of reason from that of oppression, despising of vice from despise of scarcity of luck, upholding glory instead of greed for money. He also inspired people by making them believe that the revolution would substi5tute good point in place of intrigue, intelligence for wittiness. He was also quick to note that, the leadership needed a system that would ensure among other things happiness and replace all the bad tidings that were as a result of a tyrannical leadership. In his opposition to democracy he asserted that, democracy could only work after they have succeeded in winning the war of liberty against tyranny and without any barrier go past the waves of revolution. He viewed the revolution as the only successful tool that would help plan for an organized government which is blended with broad-spectrum doctrines of democracy. 

Summary   
In summary the aim of terror in the eyes of the revolution organizers was aimed at protecting the leadership from any negative sentiments. No matter how brutal and dehumanizing it looked like, it helped to keep away the enemies within the allies and those without. The terror succeeded in a large extent to cool the flames of political counterrevolution by succeeding in far extent killing all forms of moral justice which would have otherwise formed the ground for moral counterrevolution.

The Korean War

The world has witnessed several wars caused by diverse reasons. One of such is the Korean War of 1950. The genesis of the war could be simply traced to the political division of the Korean Peninsula between the American government and the Soviet Union, a scheming tactic which had the Japanese fazed out of their share in the Korean empire. The United States took over the Southern Korea, while the Soviet Union controlled the North. This development led to a cold war, for the Northern Korean was keen on re-amalgamating the Korean empire.

As the cold war continues, tensions were high between the Northern and the Southern Korea, albeit negotiations were been made for the two part to re-unite. This negotiation only succeeded in increasing the tension, until the tempo was so furious and finally led to a war. What finally led to a break out of war was the occasional militant raid between the two borders, coupled by the inability to hold an open election through out the Korean empire. On the 25th day of June the Northern Korea could not contain their anger further and decided to ventilate it by attacking the South Korea. This marks the beginning of what has remained to be known to the whole world as the Korean War.
                                    
Korean War as a limited War
As mentioned earlier, The Korean War started out as a cold war. However, it soon metamorphosized into a civil war. This civil war was initially between the North Koreans and South Koreans and lasted for just a couple of days. The South Korean were easily defeated by the North Koreans, simply because the Northern Korea had the support of the Soviet Union behind them. Nevertheless, this was not to be the end of the war, for events after this only proved that this was only the stage were the war could be described as a limited war. As a limited war, it involved only two conflicting parties, struggling for political and geographical re-union. The war was limited to the armies of the North and the South Koreans attacking each other on plane grounds across borders. After the prompt defeat of the South Koreans the war ceased to be a limited war and aggravated into what can be termed as a total war.
                                       
Korean War as a total war
After the defeat of the South Koreans, the United States and United Nation delved into the war. They supported the defeated South Koreans against the North. The United State promptly made available both naval and military personnel to drive the North Koreans out of the borders of the South. Apart from the support of the Soviet Union, which was very discreet in the initial stage of the war, the war was strictly between the Northern and Southern Korean (This was the limited war stage). As we are all aware that the United Nation is made up of diverse nations across the globe, their intervention escalated the war into a global awareness and raised diverse reactions among several nations.

The deployment of the U.S army only led to the Soviet Union becoming more prominent in their support of the North Koreans. The war lasted on, while casualties were recorded from all warring parties. The United Nation took the war up as a personal global military challenge from the Communist world. BBC News, 2002. What started out as a cold war soon became a war involving several nations across the globe.

Chinas intervention in the war led to a cease-fire agreement among the warring parties. However, as destiny would have it, this was not to be the end of the Korean War. China supported the North Korean, thus the war became China, Soviet Union and North Korean on one side and South Korea, United State, United Nation on the other side. The cease fire did not last for long, for the war resumed full fledge force soon after the agreement.

The war lasted for three years and was sponsored by external powers mentioned above. The war was in phases, which are Cold war phase, civillimited war phase and finally proxytotal war phase. In actual fact, the war could be likened to World War I and II, for the tactics and strategies employed during the war were similar to the two World wars. These strategies include apt and deft infantry attacks, air bombings and other naval deployments.

At a particular stage of the war, the United State threatened to use atomic bomb.
At last, in July 1953, with a new tenure in the Soviet Union and the reduction of the Communist activities, agreement was reached that the war should end, which it eventually did. However, the agonizing experience of the war by the Koreans and other parties involved left behind a memory that lasted for several decades.

Tragedies Behind Migration

In todays globalized world, the geographical borders are thinning. The demand for cheap labor in the industrialized nations has contributed to the influx of migrant workers. Despite the higher volume of migration in the 21st century, in more ways than one, the migrant experience has remained essentially the same. Based on the accounts and narrative of early transatlantic migrants in the book Major Problems in Atlantic History, migration, when unmasked, reveals tragic tales. Those who have fled from war or persecution may find reprieve in a new country but will eventually face hostility from the natives. People who are accustomed of wealth, patronage, convenience, and opportunity instead find hunger, slavery, and destitution.     
   
Life in another country is beyond anything one could expect. This is how Marie Guyart Martin or Marie of the Incarnation described her life as a superior in a convent in Quebec, Canada. Document 2 in the book presents a letter written by Marie of the Incarnation on September 9, 1652 and addressed to her son, who was then living in France (Games and Rothman 157). In the letter, she outlined her fears and misgivings about the future of Canada, the success of her vocation, and her purpose of working in a new land. Marie headed a group of sisters belonging to a religious order that performs two purposes, as what can be deduced from the letter. The first function of the sisters was to educate and win over the hearts of the Iroquois by speaking their language and learning their ways. The second was to assist in the medical needs of the French soldiers and natives alike. As the tasks grew and management of the convent became more burdensome, the request for more sisters to assist was considered. In the letter, Marie was trying to make her son understand her decision to be conservative and hesitant in requesting for additional sisters to help out in the convent.

Maries letter revealed how migration creates tension between two cultures. The entry (sometimes considered intrusion) into anothers homeland could be seen as an opportunity or a threat, depending on whose perspective you use. Marie came to Canada because as a sister, she could be instrumental in pacifying the natives or original inhabitants of the land through preaching Christianity and through humanitarian work. It is apparent that she already had preconceived ideas about the Iroquois as a race that cannot be trusted because they were barbarians and heathens (Games and Rothman 162).

As a religious woman, she shares the opinion that all non-believers of Christianity are heathens or barbarians, and thus, unable to restrain their violent ways. However, she soon showed confusion as well as surprise upon learning that her earlier assumptions about the Iroquois might have been wrong. Living in Canada has made her realize that the barbarians may not be the enemy. She says that the French are even more fearsome especially their treatment of women, The Iroquois are barbarians, but they certainly do not deal with persons of our sex as I am told the French have done (Games and Rothman 162).
   
Migration uproots you from everything that you are accustomed of and deprives you of the most basic needs.  As a woman, Marie displayed sensitivity to the plight of those who may wish to leave, considering the hardships that women faced in a new and hostile country. As of writing, there have already been two sisters in Maries order who returned to France (Games and Rothman 163). And although the need for additional sisters may help them in their vocation, the adjustments, in her estimation, are too great. The need to learn the languages as well as the unstable security that face them held her back. Although she feared the possibility of rebellion among the Iroquois, she opines that this is not the biggest factor for wanting to depart from Canada. Rather, it is the lack of basic needs such as food and clothing (Games and Rothman 163). This is why, Marie explains to her son, that we are in no hurry to ask for sisters to come (Games and Rothman 163).

To Marie the Incarnation, leaving behind family and patrons as well as a relatively comfortable life for the danger of the seas and enemies was something regrettable. Despite these hardships and being stationed in Canada not by choice but by responsibility, Marie the Incarnation remained in the hostile country, leaving her fate all to God. The same tragedies,  dashed hopes, and late regrets surround the stories of modern-day migrants.

Title Napoleon Bonaparte and his historical legacy

Napoleon Bonaparte was a French leader who led a number of revolutions against the European countries which formed coalitions to topple his rule. Napoleon was declared Emperor in 1804 after he pioneered the first coup detat against coalitions that were against his rule. This paper will keenly discuss the impact of Napoleon Bonaparte and his historical legacy.
           
The reign of Napoleon Bonaparte is one of the eras that have been characterized with high number of violence and death in the Middle East. The major reason was that Napoleon wanted to take over the Britain interests in the Middle East. As a result of his desire to be the king of the Middle East, Napoleone invaded Austria in 1779 as one of his earliest campaign. In his strategy to take over Italy he entered peace negotiation with Austria resulting to the formation of the Treaty of leoben which further gave him power to control Italy. The second major campaign that was spearheaded by Napoleon occurred in 1812 when he invaded Russia but during this time his forces was met by a very strong opposition from the Russia and it  allies, resulting to a weakened and highly destroyed French military. Though Napoleon had a very strong and organized army, he was defeated in 1815 during the Battle of Waterloo. This was after Russia, Britain, Netherlands and Prussia formed an alliance with an intention to bring down his rule and impacts both in French and in the Middle East countries in general (Frankforter and Spellman 2003).             
            
Napoleon rule has however been associated with some positive repercussions. The first one is that he led to the establishment of Napoleonic code which has been adopted by the judicial systems of United States, European and African countries. The second contribution of the Napoleon rule is that it led to into introduction of Metric rule. This laid a strong foundation in the field of mathematics that was later adopted by many countries in the Middle East.

Based on the above discussion it is clear that although Napoleon Bonaparte was a very strong theorist in the matters of war during his era, he did a lot to safeguard the interest of French. At the same time he contributed positively to the growth of science for instance when he brought together Egyptian scientist in 1806 resulting to the discovery of Rosetta stone. According to my view, our current leaders should emulate Napoleon not by solving political problems by violence but by using dialogue, arbitration and peaceful avenues so as to face off the political challenges that are facing the world today.

Zavalas Role in the Texas Revolution.

Zavalas role in the Texas revolution may be attributed to the following factors (1) his specification of the foundational beliefs for Texas separation from Mexico, (2) his membership in the 1835 Consultation, and (3) his work for the maintenance of the practice of the principles of liberty and equality in Texas during the 19th century which led to the declaration of Texas independence. Zavalas importance to the Texas revolution and Texas declaration of independence thereby stems from his function as a vessel that allowed the Texans to realize the importance of the practice and recognition of the basic rights of human beings, that being their right to freedom and equality.
   
Youngman (2003) describes Lorenzo de Zavala as a reformer with revolutionary fervor and an insight into political realities which have rarely been surpassed in the history of his country (p.214). Both Zavalas revolutionary fervor and political insight manifest themselves in his role in bringing about the emergence of the Texas state. Zavalas role in the Texas revolution may be attributed to his recognized position as a political leader. Previously a member of the Mexican government, Zavala resigned from his post as a result of Santa Annas inability to conform to his advocated liberal ideas (Youngman, 2003).

Since the people in Texas recognized the synthesis of his beliefs and practices towards the maintenance of liberalism in a country, they listened to Zavalas counterarguments against the monarchical and tyrannical rule of Santa Anna. According to Youngman, he forwarded the claim that the dictator had broken the fundamental compact of the nation thereby justifying rebellion (2003, p.226). Evidence of Santa Annas destruction of Mexicos fundamental compact was apparent in his suppression of the freedom of speech as well as his suppression of the education of the slaves in the region (Youngman, 2003).

His argument for the necessity of the revolution was officially advocated in the 1835 Consultation where the delegates from the future state argued that the Texans rose up to defend their rights and liberties against the encroachments of military despots (Youngman, 2003, p.227). This event later led to the official declaration of Texas Independence. It is important to note that Zavalas role may not only be attributed to his fight for the maintenance of liberty and equality in Texas during the Texas revolution as he also became the vice-President of Texas during the initial government headed by David Burnet.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton and William Lloyd Garrison

The shared experiences of William Lloyd Garrison and Elisabeth Cady Stanton are too numerous to recount in a paper such as this However, as a means to highlight some of the more obvious experiences and departures the following will address their shared common goals and points of divergence. Though linked strongly the womens suffrage movement and abolition of slavery were two distinct social-political goals of the 19th century.

William Lloyd Garrison, somewhat radically, called for the immediate end of slavery whereas, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, though an abolitionist herself, had been focused on womens issues, such as equality under the law and society. They both shared the common desire to see equality and basic humans rights shared with all of the underprivileged. However, this desire, belies their background, which did differ if not in content at least in class.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton, had been born into a family, which today might be described as middle class. Stantons father, who had been an attorney, without a doubt infused some of the legal mindedness which she took into her fight for equality. Contrasting her early childhood with that of William Lloyd Garrison, who had been born to an immigrant family, it is clear that though they shared common goals and sentiments, they were speaking from different class backgrounds.

In addition to their differing economic backgrounds, a point of contrast most striking is how they differed in reaction to the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the US constitution. Elisabeth Cady Stanton actively lobbied against their ratification, believing that the fight for the abolition of slavery and for womens suffrage where inextricable linked. In contrast to this, William Lloyd Garrison, reacted by trying to close down the political organization, saying, My vocation as an Abolitionist thank God has ended.
These two figures deserve a much more in-depth review, and unquestionably have enough in their respective backgrounds to provide such an endeavor. It is unfortunately beyond the scope of this short essay. The fact that they had common goals, both in the abstract and reality is clear by the very causes they fought for. The society they envisioned, the Just society differed in semantics and not in substance. If either or both of them were able to see society today, they would surly perceive that their works and hard fought battles were not in vain.             

As I read the first two chapters in the book The Ottoman Empire , I have learned rich and valuable information about this great empire and why it had flourished for a long time.

In the first chapter of the book, I have discerned that The Ottoman Empire, or as widely-known in Europe since the seventeenth century as the  Turkish empire and the  Turks for the Muslims, had occupied lands and dominated Europe, Asia, and Africa. Furthermore, the Ottoman Empire also infiltrated different areas with dwellers of heterogeneous religion, language, and social structure. The Turks are dominantly Islam, however, there are others who were not exclusively Islamic nor were exclusively Turkish, but their loyalty was stipulated to the Sultan. The Ottoman Empire was an agrarian economy, as mentioned in Chapter One. Agriculture is their economic activity, as well, as their livelihood. Chapter One also presents and discusses detailed information about the milestones that brought about the developments before and during the Ottoman Empire. These include uncovering specific dates about notable incidents, victories, goals, and targets of the empire - from the time the Ottoman emirate experienced triumph, disaster, civil war and recovery, and the apogee of empire, and the ottoman times of trouble.

In Chapter two, the book mainly discusses the the reproduction and family structure. It presents information regarding family dynamics. Some of the rules of family are A family man can practice polygamy. This means that a man can marry up to four wives on the other hand, a woman can only marry one husband. Another family law being observed by the Turks is that a man can own and have sexual relations with as many female slaves his pocket allows moreover, he can also have legitimate offspring by them. Women are not allowed to dominate or rule the empire. Since females could not inherit the throne, the main thing that the Sultan wishes for is to have male heirs to take over his father. The Chapter talked as well about the succession, Accession, and legitimization inside the empire that took place.

As I started reading the book, it was kind of boring especially because of the many incidents and dates, but every time I go more over the book, I realized that there are a lot of things in store for my knowledge, I have started to appreciate the culture of the Turks and the reading became more interesting and more enjoyable. This made me more enthusiastic about the future readings.

The Cuba Revolution and the effects of Cuban policies

General Statement
Fidel Castro never gave up in his determination to overthrow Batista and become leader of Cuba after being imprisoned.
Introduce event or organization and provide relevant and basic background information
The Cuban revolution was the period when Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista. This happened in 1959. The Cuban people had previously been subjected to dictatorship. Through the support of guerilla fighters and the masses, Castro came into power, and advocated for a Marxist-Leninist society.
Thesis Statement (What your argument is what you are going to prove in your paper
Since the people saw it as just and necessary, the Cuban revolution succeeded and introduced popular changes in the domestic and foreign policies that affected both North and Latin America.
First Guiding Question How did the rule of Batista and the actions of Fidel Castro lead to the Cuban revolution

Supporting Detail  1 Batistas dictatorial rule
Quote or Paraphrase Several innocent people were subjected to torture as they were executed in public. (The National Archives 2003)
Substantiation The tortured people were suspected to have collaborated with Castro. They were tortured so they would give more information on Castro and his army operations. This made the guerilla fighters grow their determination to fight and overthrow him. The Batista regime attempted to prevent free elections and imprisoned many of its enemies. At the same, time economic disparity between the wealthy sugar barons and the urban and rural poor worsened. Though Batista had support from the US, he lost to Castro. This was a result of the Cuban people boycotting the polls. Batista fled the country and Castro became president of Cuba.
Supporting Detail  2 The July 26 Movement was a group formed by Fidel Castro, which attacked the Moncada Barracks.

i. Quote or paraphrase The first attempt that Castro made in a bid to overthrow Fulgencio Batista was the attack of the Moncada army barracks. (The National Archives 2003)
ii.Substantiation The first plan to overthrow Batista was unsuccessful. It led to the death of several of Castros troupe. This led to Castros imprisonment for two years. He was later released as a result of pressure from the public. He did not give up as he left for Mexico to plan for a fresh attack.
Supporting detail  3 Castro was the leader of the July 25 Movement, which was responsible for the Moncada army barracks attack.

Quote or paraphrase This is the group that was liquidated and fused with the Communist Party of Cuba when Castro came to power. (Weisbord)

Substantiation Before Castro got into power, the July 26 Movement had fled when they lost to Batista. The troupe came back to Cuba in 1956 and set up their base in the Sierra Maestra Mountains. Though they lost again, they managed to attack isolated garrisons and obtain arms.
Second Guiding Question HowWhy did Castro get power
Supporting Detail  1 There was a formation of two groups the guerilla fighters based in Sierra Maestra Mountains and the Ilano group made of the Cuban middle-class and professionals whose operations were secret.

Quote or Paraphrase Raul Ernesto Guevara formed the Ilano and the guerilla fighters. The July 26 Movement was greatly supported by the Cuban people. (The National Archives 2003)
Substantiation Professionals, the influential middle class and 45 other organizations supported the July 26 movement. At first, Castro did not get solid support from the middle class. However, because of wide discontent against the Batista regime, it was easy for them to gravitate to Castros group, which was the most determined and most organized opponent of the dictator.

Supporting Detail  2 Castro received great support from the peasants.
Quote or Paraphrase Castro distributed land to the peasants when the guerilla took control of Cuba. (The National Archives 2003)

Substantiation The peasants in the rural areas helped Castro in overthrowing Batista for they were his strongest supporters. Catholic priests and students in the urban areas also supported Castro. This was made possible because of the program his organization wished to achieve upon the fall of Batista. (Sierra Maestro Manifesto)

Supporting Detail  3 Castro becomes the new president of Cuba.
Quote or Paraphrase Castro stated that The revolution was characterized precisely by its newness, by the fact that it will do things never been done before. (Fidel Castro Speaks to Citizens of Santiago)
Substantiation The non-communist Cuban forces that also fought against the Batista regime accepted Castro because he did not declare himself a communist at first. Thus, it was convenient for them to agree to Castros ascendancy to power. After Castro became president, Santiago de Cuba became the capital. This is where the Cuban revolution started and where the Sierra Maestra Mountains are located.

Last Guiding Question What were the domestic and foreign policies that were introduced by Castro
Supporting Detail  1 Castro introduced several changes when he came into power
Quote or Paraphrase He was determined to do away with all the pre-revolutionary attitudes and values that existed. All the views that he presented were in line with the orthodox Marxist theory. (Bunck 2)
Substantiation Ernesto Guevara and Fidel Castro created the different political and economic institutions that existed. The government controlled all the banks, businesses, and media in Cuba. The education system established Marxist-Leninist principles, and did away with the Catholic Church. A domestic intelligence organization was also formed.

Supporting Data  2 Cuba completed the building of a socialist economy.
Quote or Paraphrase The Cuban people were transformed to cooperative property owners. (Weisbord)
Substantiation The government nationalized key industries and agricultural landholdings. Cooperatives were set up for people manage these sectors.

Supporting Detail  3 Castros rule had its advantages and disadvantages.
Quote or Paraphrase The Castro regime discouraged cultural ills in Cuba and supported strongly womens liberation. (Bunck 87) However, problems in poverty and unemployment persisted.
Substantiation Castro had successes in eradicating elitism, greed, laziness, and racism with his Marxist-Leninist policies. Castro also encouraged women to join the labor force and persuaded men to respect the rights of women and to treat them as equals. On the other hand, human rights violations drove many Cubans to flee the country. Castros drastic nationalization of the economy ended private investments, which employed many Cubans.

Revisit your thesis statement
The Cuban revolution did not just overthrow the Batista regime it also brought about radical changes in the domestic and foreign policies.  

Recap the main ideas in your research.
The revolution succeeded because of the wide support Castro and his band of revolutionaries got from the different spectrums of Cuban society. The united front was simply based on the objective of ousting Batista. However, when Castro came into power, he introduced changes that were not anticipated by some sectors, especially those from the middle class. This was because it was only later that he unmasked his intentions of building a socialist society. Despite of the revolutions many advantages, a number of people were also disenfranchised because of socialist policies.
Impact of the event on world history
The Cuban revolution became a source of inspiration for many Latin American revolutionaries fighting against dictatorships. It also threatened US interests in these countries. Because it occurred, during the Cold War, it shaped the US attitude towards countries fighting for national and social liberation.

The Cuba Revolution and the effects of Cuban policies
The 1959 happenings that led to the victory of Fidel Castro over Fulgencio Batista will be known by all future generations in Cuba and the world in general. Fidel Castro was always determined to overthrow Batista for his dictatorial leadership. Therefore, the Cuban people and the guerilla fighters (a group of fighters who set up their camps near their enemies) supported Fidel Castro, who was finally sworn in as President. When Castro came into power, he advocated for a Marxist- Leninist society (An aspect of Marxism which focuses on the undeveloped countries). Since the people saw it as just and necessary, the Cuban revolution succeeded and introduced popular changes in the domestic and foreign policies that affected both North and Latin America (Sweig 2002, p. 23).

The Cuban Revolution Batistas rule and Fidel Castros actions
Suspects were executed in public and were left hanging for several days in the streets in a bid to get information on Castros army. Batistas dictatorial and inhuman behaviors made the guerillas increase their zeal to fight and overthrow him. Consequently, Batista hit back by imprisoning all his enemies and preventing free elections. In Cuba, differences between the rural poor and the wealthy sugar barons of Cuba as a result of their economic status were ever present. At this time, the rift between the two classes widened. Therefore, Castro gained the backing of the majority, who included the peasants and the middle class. The U.S. even provided arms for Batista so as to fight the guerilla group which was headed by Castro. Even though he had support, Batista lost to Castro as a result of boycotting of polls by the Cubans. Consequently, Batista fled to Mexico, and Castro was sworn in as Cubas president (The National Archives 1993, par.6-10).
   
Castro led the July 26th movement, which initially attacked the Moncada barracks, so as to overthrow Batista. The plan was however disastrous as several fighters in Castros troupe were killed. As a result, Castro was imprisoned under the orders of Batista. After two years of Castros imprisonment, Batista had no choice than to release him because of the pressure from the Cuban people. Consequently, Castro left for Mexico where he attempted another coup-de-etat (The National Archives 1993, par.1-4)
It is this group, the July 26th movement that was liquidated and fused with the Communist Party (a state party which consists of those who espouse communism) of Cuba after Castro became President. The group returned to Cuba in 1956 so as to set up a base in the Sierra Maestra Mountains. Their plan did not succeed as they were attacked by government troops. However, they attacked isolated army garrisons and built their stock of weapons (The National Archives 1993, par.6).

How Castro got power
Raul Ernesto Guevara was responsible for the formation of two groups, the guerilla fighters based in the Sierra Maestra Mountains and the Ilano group which consisted of professional and middle-class Cubans who operated in secret (Sweig, 2002). There were Forty-five organizations which supported the July 26th Movement. National bodies which consisted of professionals also joined the group. However, since the July 26th Movement was the only strong opponent of Batistas regime, the middle class citizens who never supported the movement had no choice than to join it (The National Archives 2003.par7,).
   
The peasants helped Castro to overcome the government soldiers .This is because Fidel Castro has promised that his government would establish the Agrarian reform ( The stage where there are redistribution of natural resources) which would lead to distribution of the barren lands to the squatters. Students from the Cuban cities also supported Castro. Occasionally, Castro also got support from the Catholic priests (Castro 1957, par.32).

Castro became the Cuban president in 1959 after Batista fled Cuba. In his speech, Castro stated that The revolution was characterized precisely by its newness, by the fact that it will do things that have never been done before (Castro, 1959, par.2- Fidel speaks to Citizens of Santiago).Little did the people know that he would also advocate for the communist practices that they opposed Batista for. Fidel Castro changed the capital city from Havana to Santiago de Cuba, reason being, Santiago de Cuba was the bulwark of the revolution, and the Sierra Mountains were located there (Castro 1959, par1-4).
  
Domestic and foreign policies introduced by Castro
 Castro was determined to do away with all pre-revolutionary values and attitudes. The views introduced by Castro were aligned with the orthodox Marxist theory (the version of Marxism that came up after Karl Marxs death). Fidel Castro and Ernesto Guevara from Argentina were responsible for the creation of different economic and political institutions. The revolutionary government took control of all Cuban banks, the media houses and all businesses. The Catholic schools were closed by the Marxist-Leninist leaders in a bid to do away with the Catholic Church. The education system established instructed Marxist-Leninist objectives and principles. A domestic intelligence organization was also formed, which placed communities under the party activists watchful eyes (Bunch 1994, p2).
   
After the revolution, Cuba joined the Soviet orbit and was dedicated to complete the building up of a socialist economy. Under the influence of Castro, it broke away from the United States politically and economically, and brought about an anti-U.S. movement in Latin America. In the first two years of Castros leadership, the government confiscated all the Cubas big estates so as to nationalize them. The large plantations of rice and the cattle ranches were turned into state farms. The sugar plantations were transformed to co-operatives. A large section of the working population joined the cooperatives. (Weisbord 1962, par4-5).

Pros and Cons of Castros leadership
Fidel Castro and his supporters strongly believed that cultural ills such as laziness, greed, elitism and racism were various ways of exploitation. The Castro regime therefore replaced these attitudes with the Marxist-Leninist society which they believed had better set beliefs and values (Bunck, 1994, p.3). Additionally, Castro advocated for the liberation of women from the chains of the capitalist society. He encouraged women to join the labor force, leave their homes and liberate themselves from the roles which were viewed as traditional. He also insisted that men should allow the women to enjoy their rights and help in the process of their liberation (Bunck 1994, p.87).

On the other hand, several people from Cuba fled and relocated to other Islands in Latin America, and got the name The Cubans of Diaspora (Fernandez 1992, p.47). This was as a result of violation of the rights of the Cubans and the restriction of the Christians to have freedom of worship. Castro had introduced an atheist society and banned any form of religion in Cuba(Fernandez 1992, p.47).Castro also nationalized all the chief industries which included petroleum refining and production, sugar refineries, glassware and rubber factories, soap and tobacco plants and ore-mines. This led to the Cuban government monopolizing the industries thus limiting any private investment in Cuba. Due to the lack of competition, there was a fall in the Gross National Product of the country, unemployment and poverty (Weisbord 1962, par.11).

Besides overthrowing Batistas regime, there were changes brought about by the foreign and domestic policies introduced in Cuba. Castros success was as a result of support from various classes of people in Cuba .However, Castros leadership had changes which had not be en foreseen by many, especially the middle class citizens. He revealed his intentions of building a socialist society. There is no doubt that there were many advantages of the revolution, but some people were disenfranchised as a result of the socialist policies. Several Latin Americans were inspired by the Cuban revolution. It occurred during the cold war, and therefore it shaped the attitude of the U.S. towards the countries that fought for social and national liberation. It also threatened the U.S. interests in these countries.

Analysis of Greek Tragedy themes in the film Pans Labyrinth

This paper is an analysis of the Spanish film Pans Labyrinth based on the theories and themes of Greek mythology and storytelling. Here, we take mainly into account Aristotles description of a tragic hero or the tragedy in his treatise of Poetics. In this film, Ofelia moves into a military camp with her mother to meet her stepfather who she strongly dissents. She slips into a fantasy world occasionally where she is promised to be made a princess. Her actions in both the worlds become interconnected and explainable only to her. Her one flaw in the fantasy world creates havoc in the real world. She moves from prosperity to doom in the course of the film, and only because she chose to act when inflicted with all the injustice. This film is an excellent example to analyze the themes of the Greek mythologytragedystorytelling.

Analysis of Greek Tragedy themes in the film Pans Labyrinth
According to Aristotle, the plot is the most important aspect in a tragedy. A plot is an arrangement of incidents in which the outcome depends on a tightly constructed cause-and-effect chain of actions. The protagonist should be renowned and prosperous, so hisher change of fortune can be from good to bad. This change should come about as the result, not of vice, but of some great error or frailty in a character.

In the film Pans Labyrinth or El laberinto del fauno, we are introduced to Spain in 1944 post the Civil war and during the Second World War.  It is a very bad situation where the Republican rebels are fighting against the strict fascist regime of General Franco. Our protagonist Ofelia comes to the military camp near the mountains of Navarra, with her pregnant mother and to meet her new stepfather Captain Vidal. Ofelia creates her own fantasy world to escape from the harsh realities of her times. The whole film has been depicted in a series of incidents (the plot) where cause-and-effect controls the flow of events. Here, in this story things seem to go wrong because of Ofelias one fatal mistake, though things may have anyway happened as in the real world. Captain Vidal is an absolute personification of a fascist, disciplinarian and inhuman nature. On the other hand, Ofelia is a symbol of ultimate innocence. Thus, they both comply the requirements of a Villain and a Hero in a Greek Tragedy. Captain Vidal is a villain not only to Ofelia but also to the rebels in the mountain and the people who are helping them from his own camp, like his housekeeper Mercedes and the doctor. The terror of the time has been well established by showing incidents of Captain Vidal brutally killing a farmer father-son duo on grounds of suspicion without any proper evidence. The father had simply gone to the mountains to hunt for rabbits.

Ofelia is a noble person born to a loving father and mother. But she is put into unfavorable circumstances after her fathers death. Her mother is left without any options and marries the Captain. Ofelia is also very courageous and stands up for herself. But this is often mistaken as disobedience by her mother and stepfather. Ofelia is a protagonist who is perfect because she is true to her conscience but has her own flaws, primarily because of her circumstances and secondly because of her innocent childish nature.

In her fantasy world, she is led by the dragonfly fairies and given instructions by the faun. The faun or Pan, according to Greek mythology is a half-man half goat creature who is considered the God of Nature. The faun is ready to serve her and informs her that she is the princess Moanna of his world, and that her father, the King is looking forward to her return. But she has to prove herself. She has to prove that she is not just a mere mortal by completing three tasks before the moon is full. Three has always been an important number in mythology. It is the number of personal completeness. Triangle is the most powerful shape. Similarly, power (administrative) systems mostly consist of three bodies.

The faun gives her a book that will tell her what tasks to do. Her first task is to go to a dying hollow tree, find the toad that is killing the tree, feed it with three stones Again note the number 3 and take a key from its belly. The stories form mythology has always been like this. The Hero sets out to attain something. And on the way, he will have to complete one task and go to the next and in the process even kill people or cause havoc. But after completing all the tasks, the Hero is sure to attain the elixir.

Ofelia very bravely goes on completing the tasks. She in spite of wearing a beautiful party dress and shoes doesnt hesitate to remove them and go inside the tree in her petticoat. She wasnt doing it for fun, but as a valiant princess to retrieve her kingdom. She goes inside despite the bugs from the mud, and finally reaches the huge toad and introduces herself as Princess Moanna. Without flinching a bit, she feeds the toad with the stones. The toad, in turn, spews out his belly through the mouth. Ofelia collects the key from the huge mass of flesh, that is the toads belly. She comes out of the tree and finds its almost night and finds her party dress immersed in the mud.

She couldnt do her second task because her mother starts bleeding and ends up with total bed-rest. The faun scolds her and gives her a stinking plant root, which the faun describes as the plant who wished to be human. She keeps it immersed in a bowl of water and feeds it 2 drops of blood everyday. The root begins to move like a baby. This root becomes synonymous to the baby in her mothers womb and to her mothers health. As the baby-like root starts moving, her mothers health recovers. Ofelia even promises her baby brother inside her mothers womb that if he comes out without hurting her mother, she will make him the prince of her kingdom.

She sets out to do her second task. The dragonfly fairies that the faun had given her guide her. She draws her own door with the magic chalk and steps in to another world. She has to return before the sand finishes in the hourglass. Theres a sumptuous feast laid out on the table and an eyeless pale creature (which is not human according to the faun) sits still at the end of the table. The creature with his eyes laid out on a platter in front of him doesnt move.

Ofelia checks out the whole place and opens a locker with the key she had retrieved from the toad. She finds a gleaming dagger inside. As she returns, she is tempted to taste something from the feast. In spite of repeated warnings from the faun and the fairies against eating or drinking anything from the feast, she succumbs to her temptations and tastes a grape. This is the very fatal error that Ofelia commits which seeks her the entire wrath.

As soon as the food is touched, the creature starts moving. He fits the eyes on the platter on to his palms and gets up. He has to lift his hands up to see. Ofelia runs for her life. In the commotion, some fairies and killed and gobbled by the creature. Ofelia somehow manages to escape into her real world.

But the faun gets angry and disregards her as the princess of his kingdom. He says she has broken the rules and is not fit to be a princess. She deserves the life of a mere mortal.

But the after-effect of her fatal flaw begins to show. The baby-like root stops moving and her mother fall sick again. Captain Vidal finds out about the root. Her mother throws the root into the fire despite Ofelias pleading. As soon as the root starts burning, Ofelias mother falls down. She dies during childbirth. That was the first blow to Ofelia.

The cause-and-effect starts working here. But in real life things begin to happen naturally. Ofelia loses all her freedom after her mothers death. Captain Vidal comes to know that Mercedes and the doctor are helping the rebels in the mountain. The doctor is killed and Mercedes escapes into the forest, after wounding the Captain.

When the rebellion goes out of control, the faun appears and gives Ofelia a last chance. She is asked to follow his instructions without questions. The faun asks her to bring her baby brother to the Labyrinth. Ofelia somehow manages to do that but the Captain follows her. The faun tells her that few drops of blood of an innocent are required and thats the last task, and thats why her brother has been brought. Ofelia refuses to hand over her brother. By this time, the Captain reaches, takes the baby from her hands and shoots her. The fantasy world vanishes for now.

By the time Mercedes and her men come searching for Ofelia, she is dying. Her drops of blood fall on the labyrinth and thus pave way to her entry into the kingdom. The king announces that instead of an innocents blood, she chose to give her own and thats more noble.

In her real life, she moves from life to doom even though the rebels attain freedom from the fascists. But in her fantasy life, she attains the throne of a princess. Here, the concept of life after death comes into place. The Greeks also believed in this concept.

The New Equilibrium and Post-Industrial Prosperity.

The unification movements of the Kingdom of Italy and the German Empire took place in the mid 19th century and were greatly motivated by the historical trends and concepts of liberalism and nationalism. In the great age of European nationalism, from the French revolution to World War II, people who spoke the same language or shared common ethnicity fought to build their own nation or states. The similarities in peoples culture and belief systems became grounds for union. The unification of Germany and Italy signaled the uproar and strength of European nationalism. On the other hand, the later achievement of independence by Poland and other east European states meant the weakening and eventual destruction of the polyglot Hapsburg and Ottoman Empires. German nationalism took shape in sharp reaction against Napoleonic France, while Italian unity required the repudiation of rule from Vienna. Unification prevailed in Europe because people liked and supported the idea of having uniform constructions. The same type of constructors and all of their component type recursively lead to confederation.

Europe has many important countries that give it such a great power  one of these countries is Germany. Germany is a federal parliamentary republic composed of 16 states. It is a member of the United Nations (UN), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), G8, G 20, OECD and the World Trade Organization (WTO). It is a major power in the world having the 4th largest economy by nominal GDP. Moreover, Germany has the 5th largest purchasing power parity. Abundantly clear, it is one of the worlds biggest exporters and 2nd largest importer of goods from all over the world. Its economy is very strong and consequently makes world trade healthy and pulsating. Germany allocates the 2nd biggest annual budget of development aid in the world. In the military and defense field, the countrys military expenditure ranks 6th. Germany has developed a high standard of living and established comprehensive system of social security. This means that living in Germany requires hard work and competence. With the effective and ample government benefits, people are expected to uphold the principles of the country and dutifully help in attaining the nations long term goals.

Germany holds a key position in European affairs and has a very vital role in maintaining a multitude of close partnerships between European countries on a global level. Germany is recognized as a scientific and technological leader in several fields. Almost all the most expensive and world renowned cars are made in Germany. The technology of Germany is always advanced and is an example to other countries. The field of science and technology benefited greatly from the ideas of many German physicists and engineers. The countrys great advancement in technology is attributed to their focus in improving their military knowledge and expertise. Because of this motivation, several discoveries in science and technology have been made by great German thinkers.

Furthermore, as aforementioned, Germany is not the only great power in Europe. Europe has several powerful countries contributing altogether to make it a continent of influence and might. From the late 18th century all the way to the 19th century, there was an informal convention recognizing the 5 great powers in Europe. Countries that are among the 5 great powers are France, Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Austro-Hungary and the Kingdom of Prussia, which later became the German Empire. During the late 19th century Italy was added to the group together with the extra-European powers such as the United States of America and Japan. Extra-European means that the county does not really belong to Europe however, the country has close ties with the member countries.

Europe was able to gain a prestigious status in the world from the start of 20th century. During the early Modern European Age, a group of nations was recognized for their contribution and important impact on the European balance of power. The countries were Sweden, the Netherlands, Portugal, Denmark, Norway, Poland and the Kingdom of Bavaria. As a matter of fact, the influences of these countries linger up to the present time. European nations made effort to make the continent a world super power. Despite the specific goals and motives of each country, the eagerness to maintain and even more uplift the status of Europe has always been present. Evidently, because of the unity of European countries, they achieved great success.
How Europe takes care of its economy is also a major factor why it is a strong country. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the European Union (EU) generates a GDP based on PPP of over  12,256.48 billion (16,523.78 in 2009).This figure makes the European Union the largest economy in the world. The EU economy consists of a single market and is represented as a unified entity in the World Trade Organization (WTO). The EU established parliaments, courts and a central bank. One of the biggest breakthroughs and changes that happened in the world economy more recently was the introduction of the Euro as a unified currency of the EU.

Europe, more specifically the Ancient Greece, is the birthplace of western culture. It played a predominant and very significant role in global affairs from the 16th century onwards -- especially after the beginning of colonialism. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European nations controlled at the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania and portions of Asia. After the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s, eastern European countries began joining the EU. The union expanded to its current size of 27 nations, making Europe a major economical and political centre of power.

The defense and armed forces of the European Union today are comprised of the national militaries of the 27 member states. Although a military force of the EU, the member nations primary domain is still their territorial scope. A number of European structural arrangements and military forces have been established in order to further the area of defense in European integration. These efforts lead to the frequent European Union (EU) military operations in the recent years. Several prominent leaders, including German Chancellor Angela Merkel, French President Nicolas Sarkozy, Italian Foreign Minister Franco Frattini and former Belgian Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt, have voiced support for a common defense for the union.

This possibility is formally laid down in the treaty on European Union following the entry into force of the treaty of Lisbon on 1 December 2009. Accordingly, having a common area defense will enhance cooperation between member nations. In 2004 EU countries took over leadership of the mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina from NATO through the European Union force (EUFOR). The mission was given the brand on of an EU initiative as it sponsored the force to further the forces image of legitimacy. On 20 February 2009 the European parliament voted in favor of the creation of a Synchronized Armed Forces Europe (SAFE ) as a first step towards a true European military force. SAFE will be directed by an EU directorate. With its own training standards and operational doctrines, there are also plans to create an EU Council of Defense Ministers and a European statue for soldiers within the framework of safe governing training standards and operational doctrine and freedom of operational action.

The EU primarily acts through its common foreign and security policy. Although Denmark has opted  out from this and some states are limited by neutrality issues, the EU acts as one in general. To address the issue on some countries limitations, the EU commanded the military to be more specific on peacekeeping  an aspect in which European states have a great deal of experience. If all the member states annual spending was taken as a bloc, the figure would amount to over  311 billion, second only to the US militarys  713 billion. However the cumulative effect is much less than it seems due to duplication of capacities in individual militaries. There have been efforts to overcome this with joint projects such as the Euro fighter and through joint procurement of equipment.

The European Defense Community (EDC) was a plan proposed in 1950 by Rene Pleven, the French president of the council (name of prime ministers until 1958 ) during that time. The plan was in response to the American call for the rearmament of West Germany. The primary intention was to form a pan-European defense force as an alternative to Germanys proposed accession to NATO that meant to harness its military potential in case of conflict with the soviet bloc. The EDC was to include West Germany, France, Italy and the Benelux countries. A treaty was signed on 27 May 1952, but the plan was not actualized and never went into effect.

The European Union (EU) is an economic and political union of 27 member states, located primarily in Europe. It is deeply committed to the regional integration of the member countries. The EU was established by the Treaty of Maastricht on 1 November 1993 upon the foundations and clamor of the European communities. With over 500 million citizens, the EU generates an estimated 30 share (US  18.4 trillion in 2008 ) of the nominal gross world product and about 22 ( US  15.2 trillion in 2008 ) of the PPP gross world product. The EU has developed a single market trough a standardized system of laws which apply to all member states. This standardization of system laws helps in ensuring the free movement of people, goods, services and capital. It maintains common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development.

Since its origin, the EU has established a single economic market across the territory of all its members. Currently, a single currency is in use between the 16 members of the Euro zone. If considered as a single economy, the EU generated an estimated nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of US  18.39 trillion (15.247 trillion international dollars based on purchasing power parity) in 2008, amounting to over 22  of the worlds total economic output in terms of purchasing power parity. This is a fact that makes the European Union the largest economy in the world by nominal GDP and the 2nd largest trade bloc economy in the world by PPP valuation of GDP. As previously mentioned, it is the largest exporter and importer of goods and services. The European Union is the biggest trading partner of several large and powerful countries such as China and India in Asia. 178 of the top 500 largest corporations measured by revenue (Fortune Global 500) have their headquarters in countries that are member of the EU. In May 2007 unemployment in the EU stood at 7 while investment was at 21.4 of GDP, inflation at 2.2  and public deficit at  0.9  of GDP. There is a great deal of variance for annual per capita income within individual EU states, this range from US  7,000 to US  69,000.

The 27 member states of the European Union (EU) had an agreed budget of 120.7 billion for the year 2007 and   864.3 billion for the period 2007 - 2013, representing 1.10 and 1.105 of the EU   27 s GNI forecast for the respective periods. By comparison, the United Kingdom s expenditure for 2004 was estimated to be   759billion, and France was estimated to have spent   801billion. In 1960, the budget of the then European economic community was 0.03  of GDP. In the 2006 budget, the largest single expenditure item was agriculture with around 46.7  of the total budget. Next in line among the expenditures are the structural and cohesion funds with approximately 30.4  of the total. Internal policies took up around 8.5 . Administration accounted for around 6.3 . External actions, the pre  accession strategy, compensations and reserves brought up the rear with approximately 4.9 , 2.1 , 1  and 0.1  respectively.

Having established that the European Union is a great power in the military, political and economic sense, the worlds field is evened out. The United States has always been a powerful nation in terms of economy and defense. Having a group of countries (in the form of the European Union) to equal, if not overtake the same power makes the diplomacy and transactions in the world healthier. The potential of one countrys monopoly of world affairs is lessened thus, less trouble and minimal45